Articles

Background. Studies have shown the great importance of early mathematical development as a predictor of subsequent success, which poses the question of how to organize preschool mathematical education with a view to the children’s age characteristics, including their cognitive development. In other words, mathematical concepts and actions should be formed with the help of teaching resources appropriate to the child’s development.

Objective. To determine the effectiveness of three teaching resources (examples, models, and symbols) in formation of the concept of magnitude in older preschoolers (ages 6–7) with different levels of executive function.

Design. Four training programs (with 15 twenty-minute lessons each) were developed and conducted in a formative experiment for older preschoolers with different levels of development of executive functions. The lessons addressed the concept of magnitude (length, area, volume), using different types of teaching resources: exemplars (in traditional and game variants), models, and symbols. The total sample of 116 subjects (44% boys) was divided into 4 groups for each of the programs, plus a control group in which no sessions were conducted. The groups were equalized according to the initial level of development of concepts of magnitude and the level of development of executive functions.

Results. There was a statistically significant increase in the quality of mastery of the concept of magnitude in three experimental groups (“symbolic,” “traditional,” and “traditional with game elements”) compared with the control group. The formative effect of the “model-building” program showed no significant differences from the effect of the child’s natural development (the control group). We also showed that children with a low level of regulation learned mathematical concepts more effectively with the “symbolic” program; children with a medium level of regulation with the “symbolic” and any variant of the “traditional” program; and children with a high level of regulation with the “symbolic” and “model-building” programs.

Conclusion. The findings underline the importance of both the type of teaching resources used and the level of development of voluntary regulation, when teaching mathematics to preschoolers.

Background. We apply the theory of step-by-step concept formation (Galperin) and the theory of learning activity (Davydov) to the practice of education and teacher training.

Objective. This paper describes a feasible way to teach the basics of Galperin’s theory to students studying pedagogical psychology, by involving them into an exemplary educational module on combining chemical formulas according to the elements’ valency values.

Design. We suggested that our students participate in an educational module which was designed as an example of how to materialize orientation components of action as the basis of concept formation. The “practical” action for mastering the valency concept was to combine the correct formula for a pair of elements, whose valency was provided, and correct the formulas made by someone else. However, the core “orientation” required an extended procedure of building a “molecule” structure with a special construction kit. The key challenge for the students was to coordinate their calculation of the number of bonds needed for the molecule, and name the exact total before they would receive their atom-tokens for constructing the model.

Results. Our workshop participants took on the role of students facing their first encounter with chemistry, and embarked on the formation sequence. At the same time they analyzed the mistakes they had made by ignoring some procedural steps. Considered through the lens of Galperin’s theory, these “adult” mistakes proved how vital his theoretical principles are for educational design.

Conclusion. Our workshop thus illustrated that the search for the proper action for concept formation within Galperin’s theory framework is a challenging task. The difficulties that our participants experienced while they worked as pupils revealed the divergence of didactic approaches. The effectiveness of the concept formation approach, even within our small exemplary educational module, once again confirmed the practical value of pedagogical psychology in general, and Galperin’s theory in particular.

Background. Many culturally-plural societies like Canada or Russia seek ways to manage their cultural diversity in order to promote harmony among coexisting groups. The social sciences have long viewed intergroup contact as a beneficial intervention to achieve such harmony.

Objective. This paper proposes an adaptationist framework within which to explain how and why intergroup contact contributes to the positive and negative outcomes for individuals who live together in a plural society. We employed this framework in a case study that may serve as an example of the conceptualization and analysis of these issues in international research. Its structural framework included both positive and negative contact and the role of this contact in the distribution of intercultural and psychological adaptation among a large representative sample of the Canadian population.

Design. We used a correlational design with a representative sample of Canadians from a survey carried out by Environics in 2019, which was stratified according to the most current population statistics. The total sample was 3,111 persons age 18 and over and included the largest racialised groups in the country.

Results. Our main finding was that intergroup contact (both positive and negative) related to both psychological and intercultural adaptation. These findings have implications for improving intercultural relations, especially through the role of positive contact.

Conclusion. The experience of negative contact (e.g., discrimination) in the near term is an important factor in undermining both forms of adaptation. Nonetheless, while intergroup contact can bring both positive and negative experiences during intercultural interactions, it leads to mutual adaptation over time.

Background. The theoretical basis of the study was the resource approach (Morosanova 2014, 2017), in which the conscious self-regulation of learning activity is understood as a meta-resource, of students allowing them to consciously and independently set learning goals and manage their achievement. This approach made it possible to create models of direct and mediate contributions of self-regulation and school engagement not only to the academic performance, but also to other motivational and personal competencies.

Objective. Our study is aimed to investigate the impact of conscious self-regulation, school engagement, motivation, and personality on academic achievement, while taking into account the effects of mediation.

Design. A quantitative research design was applied, using data collected from more than 1524 students from the 5^th to 11^th grades in Russian schools and applying Structural Equation Modelling (SEM).

Results. The results allowed us to construct a statistical model of predictors of students' academic achievement. The model was verified on the total sample, as well as samples differing in gender and age. The results show that conscious self-regulation is central to non-cognitive predictors of academic achievement. For the first time, a study has revealed and described the reciprocal relationship between self-regulation, academic motivation, school engagement, and academic performance. The resulting model demonstrates that behavioral and cognitive engagement make a significant contribution to academic performance, while emotional and social engagement do not find significant links with it, although they determine other areas of school life.

Conclusion. Our paper investigates the nature and strength of the effects of major non-cognitive predictors of academic achievement. The study results substantiated the resource role of conscious self-regulation not only for students’ academic performance, but also for their academic motivation, school engagement, and attitude toward learning. The predictor model of academic achievement we developed will provide a foundation for combining existing heterogeneous concepts into a single integrated model and clarify the contradictions between them.

Background. It is known that some genes regulate neurochemical metabolism, and their polymorphisms affect cognitive performance, including the ability to categorize emotionally significant information.

Objective. The aim of our study was to analyze the recognition of emotional and neutral visual scenes in carriers of different polymorphic variants of the MAOA, COMT, DRD4, and 5HT2A genes.

Design. The study sample consisted of 87 university students (Caucasians, women 63%, average age 20.4±2.6 years). The genotypes of the COMT, 5HT2A, and DRD4 genes were determined by polymerase chain reaction. Agarose gel electrophoresis was used to determine the number of tandem repeats of the MAOA gene. Three hundred sixty (360) photographic images of scenes of different emotional valence (positive, negative, and neutral – 120 images for each category) were used as stimuli. These images were classified by expert assessments. The images were presented in a random sequence. The exposure time was 700 ms. The research participants were asked to determine the emotional valence of each scene.

Results. We found that only the COMT gene genotype affected the recognition of emotional and neutral visual scenes. Carriers of the COMT Val/Val genotype, which causes dopamine to stay in the synaptic space for a shorter time, are better in recognizing and demonstrate higher sensitivity to the emotional content of scenes. Carriers of the Val/Met genotype demonstrated the worst ability to differentiate the emotional valence of visual scenes.

Conclusion. This study has shown that the length of stay of monoamines in the synaptic space regulated by the COMT gene affects the recognition of emotional visual information.

Background. Modern society is characterized by the widespread use of social media, which provides users with communication, leisure, work, and study opportunities. With the growth of such opportunities, more time is being spent online. These circumstances explain why we developed a test entitled the Virtual Identity of Social Media Users (VISCMU).

Objective. To develop and test the psychometric characteristics of the VISMU test.

Design. The research methods included theoretical analysis, modeling, expert assessments, questionnaires, and statistical analysis. The research sample was comprised of 285 users of VKontakte and other social media.

Results. The results of factor analysis proved the acceptability of the three scales identified in the test. Expert assessments showed that the test had sufficient face and content validity. The scales were characterized by optimal indicators of internal consistency, homogeneity, and discriminatory power. The test-retest reliability values demonstrated that the test indicators were stable. Statistically significant differences in the parameter measuring virtual identity in groups with different levels of success in adult life justified a sufficient level of criterion validity. The correlation between the test scales and the components of the factor structure of the modified test "Who am I online?" indicated its compliance with construct validity norms. Positive connections between virtual identity and Internet addiction, smartphone addiction, aggressiveness, hostility, and negative relationships with vitality , indicated sufficient convergent validity. The test has been standardized and specified.

Conclusion. The test was aimed at measuring the extent to which a person’s virtual identity would reveal the specific characteristics of its impact on the individual’s personal development.

Background. The 120th anniversary was celebrated in 2022 of the birth of the outstanding Soviet scientist P.Ya. Galperin (1902–1988), who made a significant contribution to the development of Russian psychology.

Objective. To analyze the significance of P.Ya. Galperin’s concept of “orienting activity” for the study of processes of mental development, learning and instruction.

Design. The concept of “the zone of proximal development” (L.S. Vygotsky) is interpreted in light of the doctrine of orienting activity, presenting three examples from different areas of research, where the concept of orienting activity is used to analyze the phenomena of mental development in children and adults.

Results. 1. The concept of orienting activity makes it possible to substantially concretize the psychological content and mechanisms of “the zone of proximal development.” 2. The subject’s orienting activity plays a key role, which is implicitly present in the method of “cognitive learning” developed in the Geneva psychological school and reproducing (according to the followers of J. Piaget) “an autonomous process of constructing new operational structures”. 3. The study examines the organization of orienting activity in the process of children’s mastery of the concepts of combinatorial thinking in a learning experiment based on Galperin’s method of stage-by-stage formation of mental actions and concepts. 4. The role of a client’s orienting activity is explicated, and its special organization by the psychologist who is counseling parents on the mental development and upbringing of children and adolescents.

Conclusion. P.Ya. Galperin’s discovery regarding the structure of human activity and introduction of the concept of “orientation,” and the creation of a method for studying the orienting component of action as distinct from the executive component, lead to a much deeper understanding of the central problem posed by L.S. Vygotsky: the interrelation and mechanisms of connection between the processes of learning, instruction (teaching) and development.

Background. The theoretical and applied works of Piotr Ya. Galperin have attracted the attention of scholars for more than 70 years. But what about the contemporary situation? Does the Galperin’s “System of Psychology” have only historical significance, or does it deal with crucial problems of contemporary psychology?   

Objective. This article explores several opportunities for applying Galperin’s System of Psychology and his theory of planned stage-by-stage formation of mental actions (PSFMA) as part of the System, in current conditions.

Design. There are three main areas where the concepts of P.Ya. Galperin’s System of Psychology can be applied. The first is the application of the method of planned stage-by-stage formation to studying the formation and development of human mental activity. The second is the study the theoretical and actual process of planned stage-by-stage formation as a psychological reality. The third area is the use of the provisions of the theory in the practice of teaching.

Results. We argue that the efficacy of the provisions of the main components of Galperin’s System, and especially the PSFMA, is closely related to the solution of a number of purely theoretical issues today.

Conclusion. The condition for the successful application of PSFMA principles is a harmonious combination of the basic psychological foundations of this process, taking into account the specifics of both the activity being formed, and of those socio-economic and technological parameters that create the space where such formation is carried out.

Background. This article is dedicated to the 120th anniversary of the birth of Piotr Yakovlevich Galperin (1902–1988), an outstanding Soviet psychologist, the author of an original psychological concept and scientific school, and an organizer of psychological science.

Objective. To reconstruct the main stages of the scientific biography of Piotr Yakovlevich Galperin.

Results. The paper demonstrates the internal logic of P.Ya. Galperin’s developing scientific views in creating the theory of stage-by-stage formation of mental actions and concepts, which analyzes the process of formation of the main components of mental activity and develops a system of conditions for transforming an objective action into a psychological phenomenon.

This biography is based on Galperin’s publications and speeches, memoirs of associates and family members, and numerous archival materials.

All the periods of Galperin’s life are presented, reflecting his participation, starting from the mid-1920s, in scientific and scientific-practical events. Particular attention is paid to Galperin’s work at M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (MGU): 55 years of Galperin’s professional and personal life (from 1943 until his death in 1988) were associated with the Philosophy Faculty, and then with the Psychology Faculty.

Conclusion. The importance of preserving P.Ya. Galperin’s scientific legacy is shown and steps taken in this direction are indicated.

Background. The formation of emotional autonomy in child-parent relations is one of the main developmental tasks of adolescence (Havighurst, 1972). The theoretical framework of our study comes from the Age-Related Cultural-Historical Approach (Vygotsky, 2000; Leontiev, 1978; Bozhovich, 2009; Elkonin, 1972) and the Theory of Emotional Autonomy Formation by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986). Here we present the results of a test with the Russian version of the “Emotional Autonomy Scale” (EAS) as validated by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986).

Objective. We conducted a substantial psychometric analysis of the EAS scales on a Russian sample.

Design. The participants were 222 pupils from the 9^th to 11th grades in Moscow schools (age 14-17; M = 15.89; SD = 0.91). A comparative and structural analysis was conducted to review the reliability of the EAS Russian version, administered by the authors.

Methods. The pupils were evaluated with 1) the authors’ Russian version of the EAS by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986); and 2) the Parent-Child Interaction questionnaire  (PCI) by I. Markovskaya (1999).

Results. The fit of Steinberg’s original Four-factor model (L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg, 1986) and of the Beyers’ and colleagues’ Seven-factor model (2005) were studied on a Russian sample for the first time. The Four-factor model was chosen as the final model due to better fit indices and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The CFA showed the model fit indices to be acceptable (RMSEA = 0.07) or slightly less than the good fit values (CFI = 0.74). The validity analysis was conducted using the PCI by I. Markovskaya (1999).

Conclusion. The aim of theoretical analysis, approbation, and validation of the EAS on a Russian sample was achieved: the authors’ version of the EAS is a valid and reliable instrument to measure adolescents’ emotional autonomy in a Russian sample.

Background. Issues regarding close relations became especially prevalent within the context of the pandemic, due to the forced separation of these relationships. This is now seen as a significant stressor that influences emotions and subjective perceptions of the relationship.

Objective. The current study aims to investigate the specifics of coping with the forced separation of partners with varying types of closeness.

Design. The study was carried out with quantitative and qualitative methods. The sample included 43 women and 42 men (aged 21-47); all were involuntarily separated from their partners by impacts of the pandemic.

Results. Three scenarios of romantic relationships were identified based on a balance of love components (intimacy, passion, commitment) and prevalent feelings (closeness or distance). The authors concluded that certain coping strategies (positive reassessment, acceptance, distraction) can help the individual to cope with the separation, but do not contribute to the closeness of the partners and the strengthening of the relationship. Coping primarily through active support was typical for partners with intense and balanced feelings based on closeness (Scenario 3). Ambivalent feelings toward a partner (Scenario 1) were associated with passive coping, which increased the risk of detachment. The moderate manifestation of balanced love components and closeness (Scenario 2) focused on acceptance of the situation, positive reassessing, and distraction, all of which reduce the stress of separation, but cause anxiety regarding the future of the relationship.

Conclusion. The type of close relationship has been found to correlate to the coping strategy adopted by the couple following forced separation during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, further studies are required to investigate separation in various social contexts, not only in isolation due to the pandemic, as well as its connection to psychological well-being.

Background. Relatives of patients with addictive disorders often face significant difficulties in their daily lives. Although the burnout concept is currently considered a significant and promising theoretical framework for studying family members who care for chronically ill patients, its application has encountered considerable difficulties in the area of addiction treatment.

Objective. This article explores the methodology for studying the psychological issues arising in families affected by addictive disorders. We analyzed the social, economic, and cultural conditions of the different study models developed in this field, and identified the difficulties hindering the acceptance of the burnout concept as a theoretical construct for investigation.

Results. There are several main obstacles to the burnout concept’s application to studying the psychology of addictive patients’ families. These obstacles are: 1) a stigmatizing attitude toward the relatives, labelling them as dysfunctional/codependent, or merely passive recipients adjusting to stressful and challenging circumstances; 2) a sole focus on the destructive elements of the “informal caregiver – addicted patient” relationship dynamics; 3) underestimation of relatives’ willingness, experience, and knowledge in the care of their addicted family member and failure to recognize their right to participate in treatment decision-making; and 4) lack of specialized tools for assessing burnout and its opposite pole – the engagement of addicts’ relatives during the patients’ care.

Conclusion. Application of the burnout concept as a theoretical framework allows us to reformulate many psychopathological phenomena described in the family members of addicts, and expands the perspective of psychotherapy by providing the opportunity to conduct interventions to improve relatives’ functioning as caregivers. This, in turn, will contribute to the effectiveness of treatment outcomes for both addicts and their families.

Background. A challenge is considered a “wake-up call” for family resilience, requiring a proper response (willingness to evaluate, understand an event and its signals, and also give an adequate response). Family resilience is defined as an adequate response to challenges, that is, the ability to cope with them based on the cultural-historical context and family resources, such as clear and open family communication and connectedness, the use of social resources, a broad system of values ​​and senses, the ability to derive meaning from adversity, acceptance, and flexibility.

Objective. This article reports on a study which aimed to analyze components of the resilience of Russian families in response to life circumstances that have become challenges for them.

Design. The study was conducted from March 20 to May 7, 2022. Participants took an online survey on Yandex-forms; the link to the survey was distributed through social networks on public pages and in private messages. Two hundred seventy-four (274) representatives of Russian families responded, including 234 women and 40 men (14.6%) ranging from age 17 to 65 (cf. 34.1+12.5). After removing the data of 15 participants who did not report a negative event in their families, the final sample consisted of 259 people.

Results. Challenges for modern Russian families can be categorized as loss challenges, relationship challenges, global challenges, challenges of illness, and challenges of financial well-being. The challenges of loss stimulate flexibility of response, acceptance, and overcoming suffering through mutual understanding. Global challenges and the challenges of illness awaken family spirituality. The ability to discuss problems together and share decision making becomes a resource to meet the challenge of families’ financial well-being. Confidence in solving problems and a positive outlook become resources to face relationship challenges. The intensity of events is a signal for a family to evoke communication and connectedness, acceptance, and flexibility, as well as family resilience as a whole.

Conclusion. There is a connection between the difficulties that respondents regard as challenges and the characteristics of their family resilience; the most adequate response to challenges is to increase family resilience.

Background. Attachment-related anxiety and avoidance have a significant impact on self-esteem, optimism, and hope. Moreover, previous studies have shown that religiosity can also be an important factor in promoting hope and emotional regulation. 

Objective. The first aim of this study was to explore the relationship between attachment-related anxiety, attachment-related avoidance, dispositional hope, generalized self-efficacy (GSE), future time perspective (FTP) as future time opportunities (FTO), and focus on limitations (FOL). The second purpose was to detect the effect of religiosity on hope, GSE, and FTP. 

Design. The study involved 153 Turkish participants (Females n = 81, 52.9%), between the ages of 18 and 66, who filled out the Dispositional Hope Scale, and the Experience in Close Relationship-Revised (ECR-R), FTP, and GSE inventories via a Google survey. A Pearson correlation test, multiple linear regression analysis, and an independent t-test were computed. 

Results. Attachment-related anxiety was inversely related to dispositional hope and GSE, while it was positively associated with FOL. Attachment-related avoidance was negatively related to dispositional hope and FTO, whereas it was positively correlated with FOL. FTO was positively correlated with GSE and dispositional hope. Religious participants had a higher level of dispositional hope and GSE than non-religious participants. A lower level of attachment-related anxiety and religiosity was associated with a higher level of GSE and hope. Females showed a higher level of makeup agency than men, whereas the men reported a higher level of FOL than the women. 

Conclusion. This study concluded that both attachment-related anxiety and religiosity were predictors of hope and GSE. Gender differences played a significant role in FOL and make-up agency. Moreover, it was found that attachment-related anxiety and avoidance have different functions in GSE and FTO. 

Background. Following the new line of research on Family Social Capital, this work focused on the adaptation and application of the Family Social Capital questionnaire to studying the association between Family Social Capital (FSC) and the intention of Russian females to start a business.

Objective. This study investigated the relationship between three dimensions of Family Social Capital (Structural, Cognitive, and Bonding) and components of Entrepreneurial Intention (EI) operationalized via Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior among females in Russia.

Design. Online survey participants (N=222) were assessed with 1) an adapted version of the FSC questionnaire (Álvarez et al., 2019); and 2) the EI questionnaire previously verified on a large Russian sample within Social Capital research (Tatarko & Schmidt, 2015).

Results. The study confirmed the positive relationship of EI with two dimensions of FSC: Structural FSC (namely, the frequency of time spent with significant family members) and Bonding FSC (namely, family resources that can be activated in various life situations). Both positive relationships are mediated by Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) – one’s feeling of being capable to act upon one’s intentions. The third dimension of FSC – Cognitive FSC (namely, family cohesion and intra-family trust) – showed no association with the intention to start a business among Russian females.

Conclusion. Russian women with higher levels of EI demonstrated higher investment in family time with significant family members (Structural FSC) and reported exposure to larger intra-family resources (Bonding FSC). These two factors, even though not strengthened with a supportive and trustworthy family atmosphere (Cognitive FSC), provided the sense of confidence and control, which empowered the women with the courage to take preliminary actions with the intention of starting their own businesses.   

Background. Research documenting the consequences of perfectionism on psychopathology and academic achievement across diverse cultures proliferates. This paper situates the multidimensional model of perfectionism and the role of family perfectionism within a Russian context.

Objective. The main purposes are to investigate the psychometric properties of the Family Almost Perfect Scale (FAPS) among Russian college students and to explore whether the different types of perfectionistic families found in past studies are replicated in the sample. The impact of both personal and family aspects of perfectionism on psychological and academic outcomes is investigated.

Design. The psychometric properties of a Russian family perfectionism measure were examined using 169 students (50 men, 119 women), recruited at a national university in Perm, Russia. Their overall average age was 19.60 (SD = 0.63), ranging from 18 to 23 (Men: M = 19.72, SD = 0.76; Women: M = 19.55, SD = 0.56).

Results. Results indicated that the adjusted 15-item Russian Family Almost Perfect Scale (FAPS) yielded adequate factor structure, construct validity, and internal consistency reliability. The distinctively adaptive and maladaptive natures of the Family Standards and Family Discrepancy subscales were supported through correlations with psychological distress measures, as well as the three different types of perfectionistic families that were replicated through cluster analyses. The adaptive, maladaptive, and non-perfectionistic families mirrored the groups found in past studies. In comparing individuals of various family types, those from maladaptive perfectionistic families reported higher levels of depressive mood and anxiety than those from adaptive perfectionistic families.

Conclusion. Findings implicate the relevancy of this construct to college students’ psychological well-being. The Russian FAPS could be used in future research to further explore perceived family perfectionism among Russian-speaking populations.

Background. A person’s ability to solve several tasks simultaneously, or within a limited amount of time, -- i.e., multitasking -- is becoming more and more highly valued in society, despite experimental data in cognitive science about the low effectiveness of such activity. But, in the modern world, the term multitasking has become increasingly used in another sense – that is, a personal choice to perform several tasks simultaneously even if a person could do them consecutively.

Objective. The aim of this study was to reveal the relationship between a personal preference for multitasking, its subjective effectiveness in children and adolescents, and their tendency for and efficacy of multitasking under experimental conditions.

Design. One hundred and fifty-seven (157) schoolchildren of different ages participated in the study, which called for responding to four windows on a screen, including texts (SMS) and video images, and reporting on their subjective multitasking and its efficacy.

Results. The majority of children and adolescents said (the older they were, the more likely) that sometimes, or often, they combine several tasks, and argued that their performance was effective.

Conclusion. The subjective perspective on multitasking and its effectiveness was more likely to be related to multitasking by carrying out several tasks simultaneously, than switching between tasks, and was not related to actual effectiveness when undertaking a variety of activities within a limited time period. In the case of distractions (for instance, incoming messages while undertaking tasks), they might be related to a decrease in effectiveness.

Background. Emotional intelligence is the ability to quickly and correctly recognize the emotional expressions of other people and to express and manage one’s own emotions. It contributes to the success of a person in activities related to communication and interaction with people. Emotional intelligence has been studied largely in the context of organizational and education psychology, but less is known about the influence of genetics on it.

Objective. We aim to study emotional intelligence in carriers of different СОМТ, BDNF, DRD2, and HTR2A genotypes.

Design. We used three methods to measure emotional intelligence. Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test is a set of tasks with forced choice and frequency-based correct responses. We also applied two self-report questionnaires by Lyusin and Hall. We recruited 280 participants who took part in all three measures. We also identified their genotypes of the СОМТ, BDNF, DRD2, and HTR2A genes.

Results. Carriers of the Val/Met genotype of the COMT gene, A/A genotype of the HTR2A gene and C/C genotype of the DRD2 gene showed the highest level of emotional intelligence, while no differences were found between carriers of the BDNF genotypes. These data were obtained by using the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test. Self-report scores of emotional intelligence did not differ between carriers of different genotypes across all four of the genes in question.

Conclusion. Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test scores were differed for carriers of some genotypes, whereas self-reported emotional intelligence scores did not differ between according to genotype.

Background. Gender inequality continues to reproduce itself in hidden and ambivalent forms and leads to invisible barriers in women's careers and lives. The authors were interested in how social perceptions of gender differences would relate to the maintenance of gender inequality in various spheres of life.

Objective. The purpose of the presented research was to study social perceptions of gender differences in relation to the subjective significance of the gender inequality issue.

Design. The study was conducted via an online survey throughout February-September of 2019. The sample included 106 people aged 18 to 68 (M = 30.2, σ = 10.5), 49% of respondents were women. The authors have developed and tested a questionnaire assessing the adherence to ideas regarding evident gender differences in various spheres of life. The reliability of all scales of the questionnaire has been tested. Respondents also completed a questionnaire identifying their perceptions of gender inequality and shared their life experience with respect to this phenomenon in the form of free description.

Results. The following two latent factors reflecting different aspects of gender perceptions have been identified: “Career Inequality” and “Differences in Social Spheres”. Indicators of the subjective significance of gender inequality (which include gender awareness, frequency of gender inequality witnessing, personal experience of gender discrimination and the emotional significance of this experience) were positively correlated with perceptions of career inequalities (these support ideas regarding gender differences when it comes to opportunities for professional realization) and negatively correlated with perceptions of differences within social spheres (these support ideas regarding the existence of essential gender differences within the family, politics and everyday life).

Conclusion. Articulation of personal experiences of gender inequality is associated with social perceptions of the absence of essential gender differences in various social domains (egalitarianism) and sensitivity to gender inequality with regards to career opportunities.

Background. Although the interest in subjective well-being has flourished during recent decades, there is a general lack of research into this subject throughout the Arab world, and in the Jordanian academic environment in particular.

Objective. The present study aimed to identify any significant gender differences in the level of subjective well-being, and to examine the relationship between subjective well-being and social support among a sample of Hashemite University students.

Design. The study sample comprised 679 male and female undergraduate students from the Hashemite University chosen by purposive method. The College Student Subjective Well-being Questionnaire and Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support were used to collect the data.

Results. The results showed no significant differences in the level of subjective well-being due to the gender variable, but indicated significant differences between genders in satisfaction with academics and school connectedness. The results also showed a positive relationship between subjective well-being and social support.

Conclusion. The current study contributes to enriching the theoretical literature related to gender differences in the level of subjective well-being of Jordanian university students and to examining the relationship between subjective well-being and social support.