Articles

Background. Recent data indicate an increase in speech difficulties and a decline in narrative competence among today’s preschool children. Therefore, identifying effective methods to support the development of narrative competence is a pressing and relevant challenge.

Objective. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of using PlayWorld interventions in fostering narrative competence in preschool children.

Design. The study involved 90 children aged 5–6 years and compared: (1) PlayWorld—a form of joint child-adult pretend play based on a fairy tale plot, (2) free pretend play, and (3) a control group. The research employed a randomised controlled trial design. Children’s narratives were assessed using the “MAIN: Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives”, focusing on word count, speech rate, and both macrostructure (semantic level) and microstructure (lexical-grammatical level) of narrative production.

Results. The results revealed that children receiving PlayWorld interventions significantly improved their macro- and microstructure of narratives, whereas in free pretend play children improved only the macrostructure of narratives. Children in the control group showed significant decline of scores for the macrostructure of narratives.

Conclusion. The findings revealed that PlayWorld interventios are an effective approach for developing narrative competence. The use of cultural texts and adult involvement in pretend play are important complementary factors that enhance the developmental impact of pretend play. The findings contribute to a more precise understanding of how pretend play supports narrative development and may have both theoretical and practical implications for future research and educational practice.

Background. There is an absence of research – in EFL contexts – into the importance of positive psychology, notably the significant role of emotions in teaching.  The topic of an instructor’s emotional labour and grit is particularly important in this context.

Objective. The central focus of the current investigation was to determine the degree of association (predictive link) between teachers’ emotional labour and teacher grit, which represents the perseverance and passion for enduring objectives in the context of second language teaching with teacher success. Specifically, it sought to uncover the unique power of EFL teachers’ emotional labour and their grit in predicting the degree of their success in the Iranian context.

Design. For this purpose, a quantitative approach with correlational design was adopted, and three questionnaires namely, Teacher Emotional Labour Strategies Scale (TELSS), Teacher Grit Scale, and EFL Language Teachers’ Effectiveness Questionnaire were administered to a sample of 184 English teachers across three different teaching contexts comprising Iranian private language institutes, public high schools, and universities in various provinces of Iran.

Results. Results of regression analysis indicated that teacher grit is a significant and better predictor of teacher success compared to teachers’ emotional labour. Furthermore, the results of correlation analysis also confirmed that there was a positive relationship between teacher emotional labour, teacher grit and teacher success.

Conclusion. The findings suggest that the grittier English teachers are, the more effective they are in their professional duties and work environments. Finally, theoretical and pedagogical implications are discussed, and several suggestions for future research are given.

Background. Loving pedagogy is a new concept in the field of applied linguistics and its correlates have not been fully researched.

Objective. To investigate the relations of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ resilience, mindfulness, and foreign language teaching enjoyment (FLTE) in prediction of their attitudes toward loving pedagogy in Iran.

Design. Iranian EFL teachers (N = 255) completed four questionnaires online on Google Forms. In order to analyze the data, standard multiple regression analysis was performed using SPSS version 25.

Results. The results of standardized multiple regression revealed that EFL teachers’ FLTE, resilience, and mindfulness were significant predictors of their loving pedagogy. FLTE was identified as the strongest predictor.

Conclusion. The findings of this study signified the importance of positive psychological factors in creating a pedagogy of love where EFL teachers show kindness and sympathy toward their learners.

Background. It is widely recognized that sports, dance, and other structured extracurricular activities can positively influence children's executive function. However, previous research has not thoroughly examined whether participation in a diverse range of activities aimed at acquiring new skills affects working memory development in children.

Objective. To investigate the impact of the quantity of extracurricular activities on the development of working memory among 5–7-year-old children.

Design. Longitudinal data on working memory development were collected from children aged 5 to 7 years (N = 101). Three assessments of verbal and visual working memory were conducted at ages 5, 6, and 7 years. Information on children's participating in extracurricular activities was obtained through parental surveys.

Results. The findings indicate that the number of extracurricular activities in which children participated has a significant positive effect on verbal working memory, with children engaged in multiple types of activities demonstrating a superior ability to retain and reproduce verbal information. Conversely, visual-spatial working memory did not show statistically significant differences based on the number of extracurricular activities.

Conclusion. These results suggest that increasing access to extracurricular activities may foster verbal working memory, which is an important predictor of subsequent academic success and socialization.

Background. Socio-emotional competence (SEC) is essential in language teaching, where classroom interactions, pedagogical choices, and student engagement are deeply shaped by emotional dynamics. While teacher emotions have been studied quantitatively, little is known about how pre-service EFL teachers develop SEC during a practicum. This gap calls for qualitative inquiry into their emotional experiences and professional growth.

Objective. To probe how an SEC-infused practicum course influences EFL pre-service teachers’ awareness of the role of emotions in English language teaching during a practicum course lasting for 12 weeks in the Turkish context.

Design. Designed as an exploratory case study, the data come from reflective reports, narratives from weekly mentoring meetings, and lesson plans of practice teaching. The study participants are 12 pre-service EFL teachers enrolled in a practicum course during the 2023/24 academic year fall semester.

Results. Incorporating SEC in the practicum processes significantly enhanced pre-service EFL teachers’ ability to recognize, reflect on, and incorporate emotional and social factors into their teaching. This awareness influenced their lesson design, classroom management, and perceptions of English as a global, emotionally charged medium of communication.

Conclusion. Language teacher education programs are advised to emphasize the role of emotions by implementing socio-emotional competency-based principles and practices throughout the curriculum.

Background. Due to its prominence in the professional success of teachers, work engagement has gained increasing attention in educational research, particularly in language studies. While previous studies have investigated the contribution of various factors to language teachers’ work engagement, the role of emotional experiences, notably positive emotions, remains underexplored.

Objective. To bridge this gap, the current research sought to examine the interplay between positive emotions and work engagement from the standpoints of Iranian L2 teachers. It was also aimed at pinpointing the particular positive emotions that most significantly contribute to the work engagement of L2 teachers.  

Design. Phenomenology as a qualitative research approach was employed to scrutinise the perceptions and lived experiences of participants. With the aid of maximum variation sampling, 37 L2 teachers were selected from diverse educational institutions in Iran. To delve into the participants’ perspectives and experiences, an open-ended questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were employed. Participants’ answers to the questionnaire and the follow-up interview were analysed through inductive thematic analysis.

Results. The thematic analysis revealed that Iranian L2 teachers perceived a close and dynamic association between positive emotions and work engagement. The analysis further indicated that, according to Iranian L2 teachers, positive emotions such as enjoyment, contentment, passion, pride, and hope can significantly contribute to their work engagement.

Conclusion. The study’s findings highlight the importance of positive emotions in promoting the work engagement of L2 teachers and suggest that educational administrators should prioritise creating a supportive working environment that cultivates positive emotional experiences.

Background. The positive role of grit (perseverance and passion for long-term goals even in the face of setbacks) in language learning outcomes is well-documented in the academic literature. However, a significant gap remains in understanding the factors that contribute to the development and enhancement of second language (L2) grit.

Objective. The present study explored the interplay among perceived teacher-student rapport, academic engagement, and L2 grit from the perspective of Iranian EFL learners. More specifically, the predictive role of teacher-student rapport and academic engagement in Iranian EFL learners’ grit was probed. Additionally, the mediating role of academic engagement in the relationship between teacher-student rapport and L2 grit was examined.

Design. To this end, 397 Iranian undergraduate and graduate students were selected using snowball sampling from different universities in Iran. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to analyse the data.

Results. Both teacher-student rapport and academic engagement were significant predictors of L2 grit, with engagement identified as the strongest predictor. Moreover, academic engagement served as a mediating variable in the relationship between teacher-student rapport and L2 grit, underscoring its pivotal role in cultivating learners’ perseverance and passion for second language acquisition.

Conclusion. The findings suggest that positive emotions and supportive social interactions enhance cognitive and behavioural capacities, thereby fostering a more resilient approach to learning. Relevant implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Background. Emotional regulation difficulties (ERD) are present in the Ecuadorian university student population; however, the specific assessment measures available do not allow for an efficient assessment.

Objective. To validate the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale -16 Item Version (DERS-16) with Ecuadorian university students. 

Design.  The research uses a descriptive and instrumental statistical analysis of the DERS-16 to analyze the validity of the construct, validity based with other variables (divergence) and the internal consistency of the model. 670 university students from two public universities in Ecuador (76% women and 24% men). The average age was 25.9 with a 7.1 standard deviation (SD). 

Results. A hierarchical factorial model with five first-order factors and one second-order general factor fit the data reasonably well. The model has adequate internal consistency and construct validity; particularly for the second-order general factor. The DERS-16 also shows divergence validity with the Academic Situation-Specific Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale (EAPESA-9). 

Conclusion. The DERS-16 is a consistent and reliable scale for the measurement of emotional regulation in Ecuadorian university students.

Background. Cyberbullying is an increasing concern among university students, notably in Pakistan, where digital engagement is rising. Personality traits like Machiavellianism—characterized by manipulation, callousness, and strategic exploitation—have been implicated in antisocial online behaviors. However, the mechanisms through which Machiavellianism influences cyberbullying remain underexplored.

Objective. To examine the relationship between Machiavellianism and cyberbullying perpetration among university students. Specifically, to explore the serial mediating roles of perceived social support and Problematic Internet Use in this relationship.

Design. The study utilized a purposive sample of 433 university students aged 18 to 25 years (M = 21.17, SD = 1.89). Participants completed the Machiavellianism Subscale of the Short Dark Triad, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire, and the Cyberbullying Perpetration Scale to assess the relevant variables.

Results. Machiavellianism and Problematic Internet Use were significant positive predictors of cyberbullying perpetration. Conversely, perceived social support was a significant negative predictor of cyberbullying tendencies. Additionally, both perceived social support and Problematic Internet Use served as serial mediators in the relationship between Machiavellianism and cyberbullying perpetration.

Conclusion. The findings highlight a pathway linking Machiavellianism to cyberbullying through diminished social support and Problematic Internet Use. These results contribute to the understanding of how personality traits can shape online behaviors and offer a framework for future research exploring the psychosocial dynamics of cyberbullying in emerging digital contexts.

Background. Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) is critical for academic achievement, particularly in mathematics. The Corsi Block-Tapping Test (CBTT) is one of the most widely used tools to assess VSWM, traditionally relying on span length as the primary performance indicator. However, recent research suggests that additional metrics, such as accuracy and reaction time (RT), may offer complementary insights. Despite this, RT remains underexplored in studies examining VSWM development and its links to academic outcomes such as math performance.

Objective. To investigate age- and sex-related changes in VSWM using CBTT accuracy, span, and RT, and to examine how these metrics relate to math achievement across school grades and sexes.

Design. Data were collected from 2,749 Russian pupils (53% girls), aged 10 to 18 years (M = 13.89, SD = 2.08), enrolled in grades 5 to 11 in two regions (Nizhny Novgorod and Irkutsk). Regression analysis was applied to three indicators of CBTT and math achievement that was measured by average school grades.

Results. CBTT accuracy increased and RT decreased from grades 5 to 8, then both increased post-grade 9, suggesting a developmental shift. Accuracy predicted math grades in grades 5–9 but not later; RT was a stable negative predictor across all grades. Sex did not moderate VSWM–math associations, though girls showed greater RT efficiency in late adolescence.

Conclusion. VSWM develops along non-linear trajectories that differ by metric. Multi-indicator assessment is essential, and school grades should be interpreted with caution as proxies for math ability.

Background. Encounters with threats can lead to a motivation to justify the existing social system, which can be expressed through endorsement of system-justifying beliefs.

Objective. The aim of the study was to examine how different types of threats contribute to endorsement of system-justifying beliefs in the economic domain.

Design. We tested a theoretical model (N = 577) with internal threats (fear of death), economic threats (threats of poverty and socio-economic inequality), and subjective threat perception (belief in a dangerous and competitive world) as predictors; system-justifying beliefs (economic system justification, opposition to equality, dominance, and antiegalitarianism) served as dependent variables, and sociodemographic characteristics were included as control variables.

Results. Structural equation modeling showed adequate fit in the Russian context. Belief in a competitive world positively predicted dominance, antiegalitarianism, and opposition to equality, while belief in a dangerous world negatively predicted economic system justification. Fear of death positively predicted opposition to equality, whereas perceived economic threats (poverty and inequality) negatively predicted antiegalitarianism, and opposition to equality.

Conclusion. Dangerous and competitive worldviews, internal and economic threats contribute to the support of system-justifying beliefs in the economic domain.

Background. Extreme events, including warfare, lead to transformations in moral norms and the heightened intensity of moral disengagement mechanisms, which may be prolonged or become irreversible. Research to identify the factors that reduce the frequency of moral disengagement mechanisms among adolescents can lead to understanding how to prevent and decrease the intensity of destructive behavior.

Objective. To identify the emotional states and fundamental belief systems that correlate with the intensity of moral disengagement in adolescents from combat zones, compared to peers in a control group.

Design. The study employed the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS-21) to assess the severity of negative emotional states; the revised World Assumption Scale (Russian adaptation) to measure the intensity of five fundamental beliefs; and the Propensity to Morally Disengage Scale (Russian adaptation) to evaluate the extent of moral disengagement. The sample consisted of 196 adolescents aged 13 to 16. 98 participants were residents of a combat zone (Belgorod Region) and 98 participants from various regions of the Russian Federation with no exposure to combat danger.

Results.  The study revealed a significant deterioration across all assessed indicators of emotional state, as well as a reduction in fundamental beliefs about the benevolence of the world, the trustworthiness of others, and self-worth among adolescents in the primary group compared to the control group. Adolescents from the Belgorod Region exhibited significantly higher levels of 5 (from 8) moral disengagement mechanisms. Predictors of the intensity of moral disengagement were identified.

Conclusion.  Living in a combat zone contributes to the intensification of negative emotional states, the breakdown of fundamental belief systems, and a prevalence of moral disengagement mechanisms in adolescents. Depression levels (directly) and beliefs in the benevolence and controllability of the world (inversely) predicted moral disengagement.

Background. Attention to emotions is growing in workplaces. To address this interest, new psychological instruments have been developed to assess the emotional states of individuals at work. The Work-Related Affective Feelings (WORAF) Scale is a new psychological tool for measuring four main emotions: happiness, anxiety, anger, and dejection at work. 

Objective. To determine psychometric properties of the Farsi version of the WORAF Scale in Iran.

Design. This research employed a cross-sectional research design. The sample consisted of 514 people (250 females and 264 males). We collected data using the Work-Related Affective Feelings Scale, the Job-Related Affective Well-Being Scale, and the Ten-Item Personality Inventory. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to check the factorial structure of this scale. The Pearson correlation coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha were analyzed using SPSS version 26 and R software version 4.2.

Results. The model fit indices suggested satisfactory fit for the final models as CFI = .907, TLI = .904, NFI = .907, IFI = .907, X²/_df = 3.809, RMR = .055, and RMSEA = .079. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .87 and values ranging from .73 to .92 confirmed the reliability of the WORAF. The Pearson correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant relationship between this scale and similar scales, verifying the convergent validity of this scale and similar scales.

Conclusion. The findings provide empirical support and introduce the WORAF Scale as a valid and reliable scale translated and validated in Iran. The Farsi version of this scale can measure four major emotions of individuals in Iranian workplaces. This scale can be used by Iranian researchers as well as by organizational practitioners to measure, identify, and improve the emotions employees experience in their workplaces. Considering the large number of employees in the private and public sectors in Iran, this scale can be and useful.  

Background. Addressing global environmental challenges requires an understanding the factors that influence pro-environmental behaviour.

Objective. This review summarises Chilean research that explores how environmental knowledge, nature connection, and prosociality influence such behaviour. The review summarises Chilean studies on these driving factors and discuss their implications for environmental education strategies.

Design. A focussed review was conducted of Chilean studies that employed the General Ecological Behaviour (GEB) scale. This self-reported measure captures a wide range of pro-environmental actions (e.g., recycling, conservation efforts) and environmentally harmful behaviours. The review acknowledges the existence of broader Latin American research on this topic.

Results. The review highlights the importance of specific types of environmental knowledge for pro-environmental behaviour. Knowledge about human impact on ecosystems (human-impact system knowledge) and knowledge of actionable solutions (action knowledge) emerged as key determinants. Interestingly, a knowledge deficit regarding personal effectiveness in environmental protection (effectiveness knowledge) was evident in the Chilean population. In addition, the review emphasises the role of prosocial tendencies, mediated by nature connection, in driving pro-environmental behaviour.

Conclusion. Developing effective environmental education programmes in Chile should prioritise fostering diverse environmental knowledge and strengthening connections with nature. Both environmental knowledge and nature connection can empower individuals and leverage prosocial motivations for positive environmental action. A key limitation of the Chilean studies reviewed are their reliance on cross-sectional data. This type of data allows for the identification of associations but cannot definitively establish causation. To strengthen the causal inferences, future research should employ interventional study designs.

Background. Motherhood in Chile is complex and challenging -marked as it is by a growing number of women raising children on their own, against a backdrop of multiple social, cultural and economic factors- as well as a significant decline in birth rates. Perezhivanie is a Russian word, originating in Russian scholarship.  This concept integrates the personal, social, and environmental dimensions of individual experience.  This study adopts a cultural-historical approach grounded in Vygotskian theory, proposing perezhivanie as the unit of analysis.

Objective. To study the perezhivanie of Chilean women in relation to the psychological, social, and cultural factors underlying the complexities of motherhood.

Design. This study uses a qualitative epistemology and adopts a constructive-interpretative paradigm proposed by González-Rey. As a research strategy, it uses a case study design and applies a purposive sampling method which allows to recruit 10 Chilean mothers to whom the episodic interview technique proposed by Flick is applied. Data analysis was conducted following González-Rey’s method to interpreting subjective productions.

Results. The main findings indicate that participants construct a perezhivanie marked by guilt and frustration within a social framework characterised by family difficulties, of monoparenting, and lack of economic resources, all associated with cultural patterns that reinforce the unequal distribution of parenting responsibilities and gender stereotypes in society.

Conclusion. The study concludes on the importance of studying and providing comprehensive responses to the complex reality of motherhood in Chile.

Background. Socio-emotional competencies are important for mental health and successful human interaction. In the university context, strengthening socio-emotional competencies is essential for fostering a collaborative learning environment, where students can manage academic stress and build meaningful connections with their peers.

Objective. To test the psychometric properties of the Socio-Emotional Competence Assessment Scale in the Cuban population.

Design. Two cross-sectional studies were conducted. Study 1 (N = 640) assessed the psychometric properties of the Socio-Emotional Competence Assessment Scale within the Cuban population. In Study 2 (N = 913), the nomological validity of the scale was evaluated.

Results. In Study 1, the scale demonstrated high internal consistency and the expected three-factor structure. We had to eliminate one item, as it was negatively correlated with the rest of the scale items; the result was the Cuban ECSE. In Study 2, we tested the nomological validity of the scale: we found that socio-emotional competencies had medium-sized positive correlations with subjective well-being and perceived academic self-efficacy. Negative associations were found between socio-emotional competencies and academic stress. Additionally, socio-emotional competencies were positively and statistically significantly correlated with the dimension of coping strategies in response to stressful stimuli or situations.

Conclusion. The use of the ECSE is recommended in the Cuban context.

Background. Investigating the complexities of consumer behaviour requires an understanding of the sociocultural contexts that shape individual preferences and purchasing patterns. Factors such as family dynamics, community norms, and cultural values emphasise the importance of exploring the influence of sociocultural premises. These forces are continuously negotiated within the evolving trends of the global consumer culture. As a result, it is essential to recognise that each group has unique values and needs that must be acknowledged.

Objective. This study aims to explore, develop, and assess psychometric properties and evidence of a measure assessing consumer sociocultural premises from an ethnopsychology approach, to identify distinctive elements shaping purchasing patterns based on social norms.

Design. A mixed-methods research design was employed to gather qualitative and quantitative data for a comprehensive analysis. First, sociocultural norms were extracted through focus group discussions. Building upon these identified premises, the subsequent study developed a scale wherein scale items were created, and their psychometric properties were evaluated through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses.

Results. The first study identified sociocultural premises related to family, gender roles, self-sacrifice, product, and hedonism that shape consumer behaviour. In the second study, these elements were incorporated into the initial set of scale items, which were then refined through expert review, pilot testing, and statistical analyses. Results revealed a seven-factor structure reflecting the key socio-cultural premises identified in the focus groups. The scale demonstrated strong internal consistency and adequate psychometric properties evidence.

Conclusion. The findings of this study underscore the significance of sociocultural factors in shaping individual purchasing behaviour, emphasising the need for a measurement tool that captures culturally specific purchasing beliefs and universal factors. This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge on social dynamics and consumer behaviour, providing valuable insights for future studies and practical applications in the field.

Background. Currently, insufficient attention is being paid to methods of rehabilitation of patients with negleсt syndrome. It is necessary to create an effective way to overcome this condition.

Objective. After we developed and tested a specialized rehabilitation training program for patients with neglect syndrome, we sought to verify that the designed program would have a positive impact on the indicators of visuospatial search in these patients, in contrast to a control group. The patients underwent the specialized training, and improvements in the indicators of visuospatial search were observed, which minimized manifestations of left neglect.

Design. The study consisted of two stages: 1) the development and approbation of the author's task aimed at diagnosing visuospatial neglect syndrome, and 2) the development and approbation of the specialized rehabilitation training and evaluation of its impact on the indicators of visuospatial search in patients with neglect syndrome. Eighty-three patients with lesions of the right hemisphere of the brain took part in the first stage of the study; 37 patients with left-sided visuospatial neglect syndrome took part in the second.

Results. The results of the ANOVARM data analysis indicated statistically significant changes in the visuospatial search of the experimental group's patients. Specifically, there was an increase in the number of head turns to the left (F = 18.127, p<.05) and a decrease in the proportion of missed stimuli on the left (F = 18.367, p<.05). Additionally, the total time to complete the tasks presented by the author's methodology increased after participation in the specialized rehabilitation training. An increase in this indicator may suggest that patients in the experimental group were becoming more aware of the search process. There were no significant differences in the indicators of visuospatial search between patients in the two control groups.

Conclusion. After completing a specialized rehabilitation program to overcome left-sided neglect, patients with neglect syndrome demonstrated improved visuospatial search indicators and increased overall visual activity. The training also had non-specific effects, such as increased motivation, more engagement in the rehabilitation process, and more willingness to participate in other individual and group classes.

Background. The concept of mental workload (MW) is a conceptual framework for evaluating the balance between the cognitive resources allocated to a task and those available to an individual. MWis influenced by the effort expended, the complexity of the task, and the individuals total processing capacity and resources.

Objective. This paper aims to explore MW in the field of sport and its relationship with other psychological variables, such as anxiety and burnout. This approach is not widely used in this context so this analysis is considered novel and unique.

Design. This paper is a cross-sectional study, with a sample selected by convenience sampling, consisting of Bulgarian athletes divided into three qualification categories: athletes competing at international competitions, athletes participating in national-level competitions, and non-professional athletes. The sample consisted of 107 athletes from various sports, with 62% male and 38% female participants.

The instruments used to assess the different psychological variables included the NASA-TLX for MW and an abbreviated questionnaire derived from the SAS-2 for Anxiety and Burnout based on ABQ. 

Results. Athletes' mental workload is multifaceted, influenced by physical and psychological factors, which may also act as a protective factor against anxiety. Team sports show higher levels of mental workload due to contextual uncertainty (entropy), which could reduce performance anxiety. Two athlete profiles emerged: a bright side (high effort, low anxiety) and a dark side (low effort, high anxiety).

Conclusion. These findings contribute to existing knowledge in sports psychology, providing deeper insights into the role of mental workload in athletic preparation and its potential function as a protective factor against anxiety.

Background. After decades of research, gender differences in spatial abilities (SA) remain poorly understood. Among factors that may contribute to these differences are self-perceived SA, inclinations, everyday behaviour and interests in SA-related activities, and related personality characteristics. In order to understand these links, a multifactorial approach is needed.  

Objective. This study explored the relationships among SA, spatial interests, and personality among adolescent boys and girls.

Design. The study recruited 660 participants (mean age = 15.04, SD = 1.08; 48% females) from public schools. Participants contributed data on a battery of SA tests; 8 personality traits: Big Five and Dark Triad; as well as SA-related activities: spatial interests and school commute information (mode and time) as a proxy for everyday spatial behaviour.

Results. Weak-to-moderate mean gender differences were observed: males scored higher on spatial ability, spatial interests, machiavellianism, and psychopathy; and females on agreeableness, openness to experience, and neuroticism. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed some gender differences in associations among personality traits and SA. In males, openness to experience and conscientiousness were significantly related to SA test performance. In females, openness to experience, extraversion, agreeableness, and machiavellianism contributed to SA performance. Although spatially-related interests were linked to SA, they were not significantly predicted by personality traits. Everyday spatial behaviour showed no relationship with personality traits or SA. 

Conclusion. The study replicated patterns of gender differences in spatial ability, spatial interests, and personality reported in previous literature. The results showed differential links between personality traits and spatial ability for males and females. However, the overall amount of variance explained in spatial ability was very small, suggesting that other factors are more prominent sources of gender differences in spatial ability.