Toy Preferences among 3-to-4-Year-Old Children: The Impact of Socio-Demographic Factors and Developmental Characteristics

Background Today’s common typologies and categories of children's toys are mainly decided by the manufacturers and retailers of children's products. Such categorizations are not based on a theoretical understanding of child development and therefore cannot provide information about the opportunities that toys provide for the young. Objective This study proposed three criteria for categorizing toys based on the cultural-historical approach: their degree of realism; their degree of anthropomorphism; and their degree of detail. These criteria were chosen as a result of an analysis of theoretical works carried out in the framework of cultural-historical approach. Design The proposed criteria were tested through an experiment measuring children's toy preferences. The participants were 129 children of ages 3-4 years. Experimental data confirmed that most children do prefer realistic and detailed toys rather than those with fewer of these properties. The contribution of socio-demographic factors and the children's individual developmental indicators to their toy preference was also analyzed. Results The study revealed that among various socio-demographic factors, only the child’s gender and the number of siblings in the family acted as significant predictors for the toy preferences. None of child’s developmental characteristics (nonverbal intelligence, executive functions, and emotional understanding) were found to be significant predictors of preference for particular toys. Conclusions The assumption that toys can be assessed in terms of their realism and degree of detail found empirical support. The results of this study may be useful in designing further research and in the practical issue of toy selection for children age 3-4 years.

Certain studies of child development and play have dealt with some aspects of the speci cs of toys and their choice (Davis et al., 2020;Francis, 2010;Mertala et al., 2016;Wynberg et al., 2022;Fleer, 2022).Mostly, such works were focused on children's gender and age as the main factors determining their preferences (Ban et al., 2022;Hassett et al., 2008;Liu et al., 2020;Mertala et al., 2016).Only very few studies were in fact related to the role of individual psychological predictors of toy preferences (Francis, 2010;Liu et al., 2020).Some of them were conducted within the framework of the cultural-historical approach.For instance, a signi cant study under the guidance of Smirnova was done to create a whole methodology for determining the psychological and pedagogical expertise of skills toys can provide (Smirnova et al., 2008;Smirnova, 2011a;Smirnova, 2011b).
e relevance of conducting further research on toys and children's preferences is that, with the huge variety of contemporary toys, there is a lack of the evidence-based data needed to examine toys and their potential impact on child development.is o en results in children being exposed to toys that not only do not contribute to their mental development, but can also be harmful (Smirnova et al., 2016).

Toy categorization approaches
ere is no single categorization of toys, since that process is based on di erent theoretical approaches and concepts (Kudrowitz & Wallace, 2010).e most common method of categorization is used for mass market toys.It is based on the particular physical category used in their production, like the materials and technology (e.g., so toys, dolls, bricks) (Clark, 2007).Another widespread method of toy categorization is based on the de nition of the toy's main function or expected developmental e ect (e.g., sensory toys, musical toys, puzzles) (Kudrowitz & Wallace, 2010).Such approaches, in addition to dividing toys by children's gender or age, are not suciently theoretically grounded.ey can rather be seen as an attempt to structure the abundant toy market.
What is much more useful is to evaluate toys according to the opportunities they provide for a child to develop through play.Such an approach requires not only a detailed theoretical understanding of child development stages and mechanisms, but also extensive qualitative experience in observing children's play (Veraksa et al., 2022).Such a categorization of toys associated with Piaget's stages of cognitive development is described in the Kudrowitz & Wallace study (2010).Based on a review of hundreds of toys, the authors proposed four categories that de ne the "play value" of a toy: sensory, fantasy, construction, and challenge.ey emphasized that each category of toys is of interest to children especially during the corresponding cognitive development periods (the sensory-motor period, preoperational stage, period of concrete operations, and period of formal operations).
From a cultural-historical point of view, the child recreates life experiences when playing.In this approach, play is considered one of the most important sources of development during the preschool years.e child not only acts out stories, but also learns about the nature of social relationships.erefore, toys should have certain properties to help the child create an imaginary situation.Toy characteristics that should be of interest to children, according to the cultural-historical approach, are described below.
Realistic toys.Vygotsky emphasized that a toy should contribute to the creation of an imaginary or pretended situation (Vygotsky, 1972).Realistic toys are objects that are a small replica of real objects used by adults.ey include, for example, home furnishings (furniture, dishes), food (fruit, vegetables), and themed sets (doctor, reman, supermarket).Such toys encourage the child to play out familiar scenes.
Anthropomorphic toys.Elkonin has shown that most o en children act out relationships between people in play (Elkonin, 2005).In other words, the main content of play is human interaction in di erent situations.erefore, children should be more interested in toys that provide an opportunity to represent stories related to social interaction and human activities.Anthropomorphic toys may include those toys that have human features (family doll set, human gures).
Detailed toys.Smirnova emphasizes that the toy should have enough details and necessary attributes for recreating real situations in play (Smirnova, 2011).In this case the child will better understand what actions can be taken with the toy.A detailed toy will be of more interest to the child than the others, because it contains "hints" as to what activities can be done with it.

Main research paradigms on children's toy preferences
Children's preferences in toys are mostly measured by questionnaires or observation.Both children and the adults who spend a lot of time with them can become the respondents for the surveys (Sung, 2018).Some researchers opt for the format of a retrospective report, when adults report which toys they preferred in their young years.However, when a grown-up is interviewed, there is a risk of distorted information about his/her real preferences as a child.Moreover, the toy market changes over time.e observation of the process of choosing a toy can take place both in natural and experimental conditions (Hassett et al., 2008;Liu et al., 2020).e paradigms that de ne the way these observations are conducted can be divided into four categories: free play (Fagot et al. 1969;Pasterski et al., 2005); the naturalistic approach (Downs, 1983;Nelson, 2005); visual preference; or choosing among given options (Golombok, 2010).

Current study
is study aimed to specify scienti c data on young children's toy preferences.e research design was developed on the basis of the paradigm of a forced choice from a number of options. is approach ensures equal experimental conditions for data collection.e novelty of this study derives from its exploration of not only sociodemographic predictors, which have been studied previously (Davis & Hines, 2020), but also the chief developmental characteristics which may impact children's toy preferences.Among socio-demographic factors considered in this study were the gender and age of the children, the level of mother's education, and the number of siblings cohabiting with the child.Non-verbal intelligence, executive functions, and emotional understanding were considered the indicators of the main developmental areas which are potentially able to impact toy preferences.
is study aimed to address the following research questions: a) Would the children prefer more realistic toys over those that are less related to children's real-life experiences?b) Would the children prefer more anthropomorphic toys to those with less human traits?c) Would the children prefer more detailed toys to those with few details and attributes?d) Do socio-demographic factors or developmental characteristics signi cantly predict a child's preference in toys?

Sample
One hundred twenty-nine 3-to-4-year-old children attending Moscow preschool institutions and their mothers participated in the study.
eir average age was 42 months (3.92 y.o.).e proportion of male and female respondents was approximately equal (51% were girls).e level of education of the mothers who took the survey was distributed as follows: secondary vocational education = 4.9%; higher professional education (bachelor, master, or specialist) = 87%; and scienti c degree = 4.8%.A few (2.4%) mothers refused to provide this information.
is data was collected from October to December 2022, and the procedure consisted of three stages.In the rst, a parental survey was carried out to clarify the socio-demographic situation of the family.e survey was conducted by means of printed questionnaires that were handed out to the parents in the kindergarten.Only those children whose parents provided their answers were included in the study.
e second stage consisted of a developmental outcome assessment; several individual sessions were held with each child.e diagnosis was performed by experienced testers who had psychological training.All techniques followed the same order, and each session didn't last more than 15 minutes.Not all the children completed all the tests (some children refused to complete certain tasks, and if that was the case, the assessment was terminated).
e third stage included individual sessions where each child was asked to choose one toy among others in three experimental trials.

Tools
Five tools successfully validated for a Russian sample were used to measure the children's cognitive regulation: 1) the Dimension Card Change Sorting (Zelazo, 2006) for the level of cognitive exibility; 2) the subtest Memory for Designs (Korkman et al., 2007) for visual working memory; 3) the Inhibition subtest of NEPSY-II (Korkman et al., 2007) for inhibitory control; 4) the Sentences Repetition subtest of NEPSY-II (Korkman et al., 2007) for the volume of auditory working memory; and 5) the Statue subtest of NEPSY-II (Korkman et al., 2007) for the level of physical inhibitory control.
e Russian version of the Test of Emotion Comprehension (TEC) (Pons et al., 2000) was used to evaluate the children's level of emotional development.e Russian version of the TEC has been successfully adapted and validated for use in a Russian sample (Veraksa et al., 2021).e test assesses three levels of emotional understanding: External, Mental, and Re exive.e External level focuses on the child's ability to recognize emotions, to understand the external causes of emotions, and the impact of desires on emotions.e Mental level concerns understanding the role of beliefs and memories on emotions, as well as understanding of hidden emotions.e Re exive level is the most complex and evaluates understanding of mixed feelings, the possibilities of emotional regulation via cognitive strategies, and the in uence of moral self-re ective rules on emotions.
Non-verbal uid intelligence was assessed by means of the Russian adaptation of Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices (CMPM) (Raven et al., 2002).
A parental survey in the form of printed questionnaires was administered to collect the socio-demographic data (gender and age of the children, the level of the mother's education, and the number of siblings living together with the child).
Experimental procedure e experimental session aimed at investigating the children's toy preferences was held within the framework of a forced choice paradigm.e experiment included three trials corresponding to the research questions on toy preference.In each trial,  the child was shown three toys, which had been selected based on the degree of the three variables (level of realism, anthropomorphism, or detail) (see Figure 1).e rst trial was designed to explore whether the children preferred more realistic toys to those that were less related to their real-life experiences.For this purpose, the three options were the following: "a) the shop where we go every day; b) the space where just a few people can travel; and c) the dragon that only exists in the fairy-tales." e second trial was designed to examine whether the children preferred more anthropomorphic toys to those with less human traits.In this trial the options to choose from were three sets of families: a human family, a family of pigs looking like people (Peppa Pig ™), and a tiger family.
e third trial was designed to investigate whether the children preferred more detailed toys to those with fewer details and attributes.e options were three toys relating to the same theme (playing doctor) but di ering in degree of detail: a doctor bear, a doctor doll with medical paraphernalia, and a hospital play set.
In all the experimental sessions, the trials were carried out in an identical manner.e toys were equal in size and set out on a dense white cloth at the same distance from each other.While the experimenter established contact with the child and gave the instructions, the latter could not see the toys.Also, when one category of toys was presented, the others were out of sight. is instruction was given to the child: "Please take these two circles, a big and a small one (two cardboard circles were demonstrated).I will show you some toys now, and I will ask you to place the circles in such a way that they would show which toys you like more, and which less. e big circle should go with the toy you would like to play with the most, and the small circle with the one that you would pick in the last place." e average total time of the experiment with each child was 9-10 minutes.

Descriptive statistics
e results of individual testing of the participants' intellectual, executive function, and emotional development are presented in Table 1.As a result of the examination, certain age-related speci cs of mental development of 3-to-4-year-old children were revealed.e majority of children were unable to switch between rules while performing the cognitive exibility tasks, and a lot of erroneous (impulsive) answers were given during the inhibitory control task, without any intention of correcting them.Moreover, the participants could only retain in their memory the words and the semantic elements of short and grammatically simple sentences.ey also demonstrated low skills of understanding the reasons for their emotions.
However, if we study the results individually, the values for each factor varied.For instance, some children obtained almost the highest possible score in nonverbal intelligence, cognitive exibility, and auditory and verbal working memory, already at the age of 3. ey also managed to complete the inhibitory control task without any mistakes.e scores on visual working memory and understanding the re exive reasons for emotions demonstrated the least dispersion in this sample.
Table 2 provides the experimental data on toy preference among children.As can be seen from the table, more than half of the children (55.8%) preferred the most re-alistic toys over toys less connected to their real-life experiences.e least preferred toy in this trial was the dragon, which, according to the instructions, only exists in fairy tales (12.4%).In the anthropomorphism trial, the most popular choice was not a human family, as expected, but a family of pigs looking like people (42.6%).However, the most unpopular choice was the tiger family (25.6%).Finally, the majority of children (63.6%) preferred to choose more detailed toys among those with fewer details and attributes.e plush doctor-bear, which was the least detailed toy, was chosen by the children the least number of times (14.7%).Notes.e "Inhibitory control (corrected errors)" variable refers to the number of errors that the child corrected while performing this task, while the "Inhibitory control (uncorrected errors)" variable refers to the number of errors that were le intact.

Table 2
Children's preferences on toy choice in the three experimental trials Socio-demographic factors and developmental characteristics impact on toy preferences e socio-demographic factors that could a ect children's toy preferences included in this study were their age and gender, the mother's level of education, and the number of siblings.Gender-related speci cs of toy preferences and play behavior were explored by using the Independent Samples T-Test.e analysis revealed signi cant di erences between girls and boys only in the degree of toy detail trial (t(127) = 2.36, p = 0.020).In that trial, the boys chose more detailed toys signi cantly more o en than the girls (M = 2.64, SD = 0.67; M = 2.34, SD = 0.77, respectively).No signi cant gender-related di erences were found in the trials on the degrees of realism and anthropomorphism.
Correlation analysis was applied to explore the potential relationship of toy preferences and the children's ages, their mothers' education level, and their number of siblings.e only variables that demonstrated signi cant correlation were the number of siblings and the degree of realism of the toy (r = .278,p = 0.01).e more siblings a child had, the more he or she tended to choose the most realistic toys compared to toys not related to real experiences.
Next, correlation analysis was used to answer the question of whether developmental characteristics signi cantly predict a child's toy preferences.e number of siblings in the family was taken as the control variable because this factor turned out to be signi cantly correlated to some toy preferences.However, no signi cant associations were found between the toy preferences and children's non-verbal intelligence, executive function skills, or emotional understanding (p > 0.05).

Discussion
As mentioned in the Introduction, the currently common toy typologies and categories are mainly decided by manufacturers and retailers of children's products.us, toys o en are categorized according to the technology by which they are constructed.is approach does not provide valuable information about what opportunities a particular toy provides for a child's play and development, because it is not based on a theoretical understanding of developmental principles (Veraksa et al., 2022).
is study proposed three criteria for categorizing toys based on the culturalhistorical approach: the degree of toy realism (Vygotsky, 1972); the degree of toy anthropomorphism (Elkonin, 2005); and the degree of toy detail (Smirnova, 2011).In the cultural-historical approach, play is understood as a source of child development.In play, the child recreates the events and processes of real life and thereby learns how to deal with them.In play, the child achieves a better understanding of the world and the culture he or she is growing up in.Realistic, anthropomorphic, and detailed toys are supposed to have a special value for play because they help to create an imaginative play situation that is closest to reality.
A toy preference experiment was conducted on a sample of 129 3-to-4-year-old children to test the performance of the proposed toy categorization criteria.e data from the children's choice of toys in the three experimental trials supported the assumption that children would prefer more realistic and detailed toys.However, in the test for the degree of anthropomorphism of the toy, the expected result was not obtained.Children were expected to be more likely to choose a human family.But the most frequent choice in this sample was a family of pigs that look like humans. is result is probably due to the popularity of the character from the Peppa Pig™ play set.Children may have chosen the pig family because they were familiar with the brand (e.g., from watching cartoons).is risk was assumed in the design of the study.However, no alternative option was found in the toy market (see Limitations).
e present study also analyzed the impact of socio-demographic factors (gender and age of the children, the level of the mother's education, and the number of siblings) on toy preferences.We found that the number of siblings was a statistically signi cant predictor of children's preferences for more realistic toys.e more children there were in the family, the more o en they chose more realistic toys over those that were unrelated to their life experiences.It was also found that boys tended to choose more detailed toys than girls.e lack of correlation between play and the age of children can be interpreted as a con rmation of the universality of the play need at an early age, which actively develops regardless of the socio-demographic factors determining the children's environment.
For the rst time, this study also considered a child's developmental characteristics (non-verbal intelligence, executive functions, and emotional understanding) as possible predictors of preference for particular toys.Still, this experiment did not detect any evidence for such a relationship.

Conclusion
is study proposed three criteria for categorizing toys based on the cultural-historical approach: the degree of realism, the degree of anthropomorphism, and the degree of detail of the toy.ese criteria were highlighted as a result of analysis of theoretical works carried out in the framework of cultural-historical approach.It was assumed that realistic, anthropomorphic, and detailed toys have a special value for play because they help the child to create lifelike play situations and explore the world through them.e proposed criteria were tested through an experiment on the children's toy preferences.Experimental data con rmed that most children do prefer realistic and detailed toys to those with fewer of these properties.It was revealed that among various socio-demographic factors, only the child's gender and the number of siblings in the family was signi cant predictors for the toy preferences.None of child's developmental characteristics (non-verbal intelligence, executive functions, and emotional understanding) were found to be signi cant predictors of preference for particular toys.

Limitations
Among the limitations of this research one can include the narrow age coverage of the sample that only included 3-to-4-year-old children, as well as certain aws related to the application of the forced choice paradigm to explore the participants' toy pref-

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Toys presented in three toy-preference trials.Notes: a) toy realism trial with three levels (low=dragon, middle=space, high=shop); b) toy anthropomorphism trial with three levels (low=a tiger family, middle=a family of pigs, high=a human family); c) toy detail trial with three levels (low=a doctor bear, middle=a doctor doll, high=a hospital play set).

Table 1 e
results of individual testing of children's intellectual, executive function, and emotional development