Subjective Appraisal and Orientations in Difficult Life Situations as Predictors of Coping Strategies

Background Many studies have shown that problem-focused coping and a positive reappraisal of one’s situation are the most conducive to achieving life goals and psychological well-being, whereas avoidance coping and self-blame have a negative impact on well-being. But there is not enough data on what the predictors of these coping strategies are in the situational context. Objective To assess the combined influence of subjective appraisal (uncontrollability, unclearness, negative emotions) and orientations in difficult situations (by drive and rejection) on planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, wishful thinking (fantasizing), and self-blame. Design The research has a survey design. The sample consisted of 637 adult participants who analyzed difficult situations in their lives associated with achieving significant life goals of various types (N = 637; 60% female; Mage = 24.2; SD = 6.25). Two alternative structural models were assessed, which include subjective appraisals of the situation (uncontrollability, unclearness, intensity of negative emotions), orientations in difficult situations (drive and rejection), and ways of coping (planful problem-solving, positive reappraisal, wishful thinking, and self-blame). Results The first model, in which all cognitive appraisals and orientations in difficult situations directly influence coping strategies, has relatively low fit indices. The second model, in which the influence of cognitive appraisal was partially mediated by orientations in difficult situations, has better fit indices. In life situations involving solution of a difficult task, the strongest predictor of problem-focused coping and positive reappraisal is the “drive” orientation of being attracted to difficulties, which mediates the influence of subjective control and emotions on these ways of coping. An orientation away from difficulties, “rejection,” mediates the influence of unclearness and negative emotions on fantasizing and self-blame. A low level of subjective control directly affects self-blame and the avoidance of problem-solving. Negative emotions are a weak predictor of self-blame. Conclusion Interaction between the subject and the situation involves appraisal of difficulty, which influences orientation in difficult situations. In turn, orientations are predictors of coping strategies. The characteristics of the psychological situation determine coping, which may be oriented toward approach to or avoidance of the goal.


Introduction
e rapidly growing body of data on the psychology of coping indicates that coping strategies are a signi cant factor of psychological well-being. ese studies show that predictors of life satisfaction, happiness, and physical and mental health include planning, proactive coping, positive reappraisal, self-blame, and support of signicant others (Bakracheva, 2019;Groth et al., 2019;Panahi, 2016;Park & Adler, 2003;Park et al., 2020). However, the question arises of the determinants of the coping strategies. In this article, we analyze cognitive predictors of coping strategies (namely, perceived situational characteristics) in situations of life goal attainment. e article is aimed rst of all at broadening the research eld of perceived components of a situation. Second, it may broaden psychological activity theory (Leontiev, 1975;Sokolova, 2021), by adding empirical data on coping with di cult life situations.

Ways of Coping and eir Cognitive Predictors
According to the transactional theory of stress and coping, coping is understood as "constantly changing cognitive and behavioral e orts to manage speci c external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person" (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 141).
Many studies have shown the in uence of cognitive appraisal on coping. Cognitive appraisal, following the transactional model of stress and coping, is seen as "the process of categorizing an encounter, and its various facets, with respect to its signicance for well-being" of the subject, as a factor of coping dynamics (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 31). Multiple studies demonstrate the variability of coping, depending on whether stress is perceived as a loss, a threat, or a challenge (Aldwin, 2011;Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). e concept of meaning-making distinguishes between situational and global meaning. Global meaning refers to people's life goals, beliefs, and expectations about the world (Park & Folkman, 1997). A number of studies have been based on the proposition that stress is experienced when the meaning a person attaches to an event is incompatible with that person's global meanings (Geninet & Marchand, 2007;Park & George, 2018).
It should be noted that identi cation of cognitive predictors of coping is connected with the problem of the di erences between some coping methods and cognitive appraisal, a problem which has been a subject of debate since the early 1990s, but has yet to nd an unambiguous answer (Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996).
We believe the problem can be resolved if the subject's goal is seen as part of the coping process. R. Lazarus, in developing the main principles of his theory, stressed the importance of the very fact that an attempt to cope was made, regardless of whether it was successful (Lazarus, 1991). According to more recent interpretations, coping can be understood as "positive coping, " i.e., the creation of resources that contribute to the achievement of complex goals and personal growth (Schwarzer & Knoll, 2003).
is approach makes goal achievement an important criterion of successful coping. In our case, this involves the identi cation of special types of situations that require an e ort, if a signi cant, di cult task is to be accomplished.

Coping Functions in Solving Life Tasks
In the contemporary view, "tasks" are situations that call for activity of the subject, the performance of some actions to solve the task and focus on the future (i.e., not just on the current situation, but also on the solution of future tasks) (Rauthmann & Sherman, 2018). Such situations call for coping as a process that makes it possible "to adapt to these changing opportunities in order to experience well-being" (Cantor & Sanderson, 1999, p. 230). Coping performs two functions in the solution of di cult tasks. First, it provides an approach to the goal through planful e orts. Second, in working toward a goal, the person needs to resist distracting in uences, because realization of intentions may be complicated by attempts to avoid the di culty (Brandstädter & Rothermund, 2002;Gollwitzer, 1999;Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006;Kato, 2012).

e Concept of 'Psychological Situation'
In this study, a situation is de ned on the basis of theoretical ideas that di er from existing approaches to coping. In transactional theory, a situation is seen as a stressor, as "situation factors in uencing appraisal" (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 82). Works based on this approach use the concepts of "stressor, " or "negative life event, " as the context in which an encounter takes place (Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996;Skinner, Edge, Altman, & Sherwood, 2003). An alternative view looks at a situation as a psychological phenomenon and focuses on subjective factors: perception and subjective experiencing [perezhivanie] of the situation.
According to the theory of psychological space, when people perceive and appraise life situations, they construct their own psychological space (Lewin, 1951). L.S. Vygotsky considered subjective experience to be "a unit for the study of personality and environment" (Vygotsky, 1984, p. 382). e process of experience combines objective circumstances and their perception by the person, which confers on these circumstances the status of a life event (Grishina, 2020).
In transactional theory, the subjective process involves appraisal of the stimulus as stressful (Primary Appraisal) and the subsequent determination of possible actions (Secondary Appraisal). ese may be present or future events (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984;Peacock & Wong, 1990). e revised model adds that the appraisal stage may be followed by a stage of divergence between situational meaning and global aims and meanings, causing the experience of stress (Park & George, 2018). However, we believe that divergence between the situational and global meanings does not happen in all di cult life situations. Perhaps it may occur in one type of stressful (di cult) situation. On the whole, this approach assumes that there are some stressgenerating characteristics of events which a person appraises in a certain way.
Our research has discovered a fact that cannot be explained by such theoretical notions. When asked to describe the content of an actual di cult life situation, 30% of respondents (n = 813) did not describe the situation as comprised of conditions, external circumstances, but as internal experiences 1 . Subjective factors play the key role here: self-determination, the search for one's path in life, dilemmas, inner conicts, lack of self-assurance, lack of will, "emotional dependence, " etc. e external 1 e same proportion (30% of the situations described by respondents) was found in our study where people described their di cult life tasks. context in this case is not decisive for appraisal and perception of a life di culty, and a "negative life event" o en does not actually take place in the respondent's lifetime. Rather, many of these situations can be categorized as "tasks for meaning" (Leontiev, 1975), "the search for meaning" (Frankl, 1984), experiencing "the impossibility of realizing inner needs" (Vasilyuk, 2005); therefore, we prefer to see "the situation" as a psychological, subjective phenomenon. In accordance with activity theory, interaction with the world and the situation is e ected through meaning-making (Leontiev, 1975;Sokolova, 2021). Hence the di culty of the situation stems from how it is perceived.
In Russian psychology, the concept of a "di cult life situation" is used as an analogue of "negative life event" (Antsyferova, 1994); however, these concepts di er in some important ways. First, the concept of "a di cult life situation" does not carry an initial negative connotation (as distinct from "a negative life event") and makes it possible to describe not only negative stressful experiences, but also the attractiveness of di culty. Second, the concept of a "di cult life situation" makes it possible to study coping not only when resources are lacking (which leads to stress), but also when they are su cient or even excessive (Bityutskaya, 2020).
eoretical Premises of is Study e concept of "coping predictor" in this study is based on the following theoretical premises: 1. We proceed from the concept of the subjective or psychological situation as the space of the possible (Grishina, 2020;Heckhausen, 2008;Leontiev, 2011;Lewin, 1951). A di cult life situation is created not by the material structure of the situation and not even by its appraisal. A person, based on previous interaction with situations, "builds meanings" (Leontiev, 1975;Sokolova, 2021) and experiences them emotionally as a di cult life situation. e idea of interaction between an individual and a situation implies that the probable becomes real in the process of the subject's activity. Accordingly, a di cult life situation may be explained as the space which simultaneously contains multiple stimuli: ways of ful lling a task, the possibility of achieving a goal, obstacles, etc. By attaching signi cance to some stimuli and ignoring others, the person chooses between factors of the environment. Signi cant elements become the basis for "building an image" of the situation in individual consciousness. We use the concept "image of the world" to explain the mechanisms of this process (Leontiev, 1979). An actual image (including the image of a situation) can be formed when the subject sets into motion a process directed towards external stimuli (Smirnov, 2016). is process presupposes directed cognitive activity. ese theoretical concepts formed the basis for creating our model of types of orientation in di cult situations.
2. By orientation, we mean the combination of cognitive, emotional, and motivational components conducive to certain coping e orts in a di cult life situation. Each orientation includes the following components: 1) types of stimuli that are considered signi cant; 2) representations of the world and of oneself upon which the subject relies when dealing with a di cult situation; 3) predictions; 4) emotions; 5) the di culty of the goal. is concept describes the focus of attention on certain situational stimuli. While means of coping describe the person's e orts, orientation points to the factors that determine a strategy for achieving (or not achieving) a dicult goal. e orientation model is designed to describe one type of di cult situation: life tasks. We identify eight orientations: ve orientations characterize the focus of e orts on the approach to di culties (drive, thoroughness, threat alert, opportunity orientation, obstacle orientation); and three orientations characterize avoidance of di culties ( ight or rejection, inaction, insouciance) (Bityutskaya, 2018). Our study looks at the version of life goal attainment that is accompanied by positive experiences in the coping process. is corresponds to the "drive" orientation, combined with reduced probability of a "rejection" orientation.
On the basis of qualitative research, we have described the orientation of being attracted to di culties, "drive, " in which attaining a di cult goal generates pleasure from overcoming a di culty, a sense of a rising ow of energy in anticipation of victory. Self-development is an important motive of drive, in which people are willing to exert themselves beyond what is required by the situation (Bityutskaya, 2018). e drive orientation in a di cult situation strongly correlates with proactive, problemfocused coping and positive reappraisal (Bityutskaya & Korneev, 2020a). In an interview, the respondents for whom drive is the preferred orientation said that in this state they have a sharpened sense of "being alive. " Analysis of the respondents' subjective reports suggests that life satisfaction is at its highest when the person is aiming to overcome a di cult situation (Bityutskaya, 2018). e orientation opposite to drive is orientation away from di culties: "rejection. " is avoidance orientation in the face of a di cult task is explained by focusing on the loss of strength and on negative predictions and emotions, the futility of one's e orts. In the absence of purposeful activity aimed at solving the task, the person focuses on attributing blame for the current state of a airs. is perception of the di culty creates preconditions for avoidance (Bityutskaya, 2018). e indicators on that scale have a positive correlation with the coping strategies of wishful thinking (fantasizing) and self-blame, and a negative correlation with proactive coping, planning, and positive reappraisal (Bityutskaya & Korneev, 2020a).
3. In determining subjective appraisal, we proceed from appraisals in a context of categorization of the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). From the standpoint of activity theory (Leontiev, 1979), we de ne subjective appraisal as the process of image formation for a di cult life situation in the individual consciousness. e mechanism of appraisal is described in its relationship with the motive, the personal meaning in the situation, and the goal (Bityutskaya, 2013;Leontiev, 1975). Earlier we conducted a study aimed at revealing the basis upon which people categorize a situation as a di cult life situation. We identi ed eight criteria: the situation displays general features of a di cult life situation; does not lend itself to control; is unclear; demands a quick and active response; involves di culty in making a decision; is difcult to predict; generates strong negative emotions; and is a threat to the future (Bityutskaya, 2013). 4. Proceeding from the ideas on appraising the di culty of a situation and the orientation in the di cult situations model (Bityutskaya, 2013(Bityutskaya, , 2018, we believe that in the process of interaction with the situation, the situation is rst categorized and then appraised as being di cult on the basis of various criteria. Some appraisals of di culty in uence orientations whose function is to build up a readiness to use one way of coping or another. We do not rule out the possibility that appraisals may directly in uence the actualization of coping methods. 5. In developing the structural models which were tested in this study, we were mindful of the two functions of coping described above: approach to the goal and avoidance of the goal. In this study, a negative correlation between approach and avoidance indicates a diminished tendency to avoid when experiencing attraction to the di culty (and vice versa). e aim of this study was to develop and test a path model that describes the in uence of individual criteria of subjective appraisal and orientations in di cult situations to coping with planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, wishful thinking (fantasizing), and self-blame. In modeling, we took account of both direct and mediated relationships.
We tested the in uence of subjective appraisal on di cult situations, and the effect on coping strategies of "drive" and "rejection" orientations in di cult situations. We believe that subjective appraisal of the di culty of a situation (uncontrollability, unclearness, the intensity of negative emotions), as well as orientations in a di cult situation (drive or rejection), have an impact on the strength of (are predictors of) such coping strategies as planning, positive reappraisal, wishful thinking, and selfblame. Orientation in a di cult situation can play a mediating role between a subjective appraisal and coping strategies. e hypothesis of such connections is based on the model of orientations in di cult situations (Bityutskaya, 2018).

Participants
e sample consisted of 637 adult respondents aged between 19 and 64 (M age = 24.2, SD = 6.25) who had given informed consent to take part in the study; 256 were males (M age = 22.1; SD = 4.48) and 381 females (M age = 25.6; SD = 6.84). ey were students at Moscow universities in di erent specialties, as well as employees with a higher or secondary specialized education (bank employees, government o cials, education and healthcare professionals, business managers) resident in Moscow and the Moscow Region. e sample size is su cient for the path models presented below, as the ratio of sample to number of free parameters in the models is greater than 10:1, which is enough for obtaining reliable and unbiased estimates (Bentler & Chou, 1987).

Assessment Procedure
In a questionnaire, we asked participants to describe a current life situation that involves solving a di cult task. A er writing a description of the situation, participants responded to questions about their appraisals, orientations, and coping.
We received 637 descriptions of di cult situations across various spheres of life: professional and educational di culties (implementing a major project, job-seeking, a tough exam, writing and defending a graduation paper/dissertation, combining work and study); material problems (buying an apartment, how to increase income); internal personal issues (self-identi cation, a life-changing choice, a dilemma, etc.); inter-personal relations; health problems.

Measures
Subjective appraisal was measured by the questionnaire "Appraisal Criteria of the Di culty of a Life Situation" (Bityutskaya, 2013). e questionnaire consists of 34 items by which the respondents assess the situation described on a scale from 0 ("no, totally wrong") to 6 ("yes, absolutely right"). e results make it possible to identify why the respondent considers the situation as a di cult one. e questionnaire operationalizes subjective appraisals of a situation on the following scales, which correspond to criteria of di culty: 1) general features of di cult situations; 2) uncontrollability of the situation; 3) unclearness (ambiguity) of the situation; 4) the need for a quick and active response; 5) di culty of making a decision (dilemma); 6) di culty of predicting the situation; 7) negative emotions; 8) threat for the future. e factor structure of the questionnaire was tested using con rmatory factor analysis on the material of di cult life situations of di erent contents (N = 736). e following t indices were obtained: RMSEA = 0.044; CFI = 0.910; χ 2 = 912.899, df = 378. is study used the results on scales 2, 3, 7.
Orientations in a di cult situation were measured by the situational version of the questionnaire "Types of Orientations in Di cult Situation" (TODS; Bityutskaya & Korneev, 2020b). e questionnaire comprises 65 items which respondents must answer relative to the situation described and assess on a scale from 0 to 3 (0 -"totally wrong, " 1 -"somewhat wrong"; 2 -"somewhat right, " and 3 -"absolutely right"). e questionnaire is designed to diagnose the perception of a di cult situation in the respondent's life as described by the respondent. TODS di erentiates the two poles of the coping dimension "approach-avoidance, " by introducing orientations that describe the perception of the situation as a complex of cognitive, emotional, and motivational components (goal level, predicting, emotions, focus of e orts, etc.). e questionnaire makes it possible to diagnose eight orientations: ve orientations characterize the subject's e orts to approach di culties (drive, thoroughness, threat alert, opportunity orientation, obstacle orientation); three orientations involve avoiding di culties (rejection, inaction, insouciance). Drive describes an attitude that welcomes a di cult situation and is accompanied by a surge of enthusiasm and positive emotions. Rejection characterizes the perception of a di cult situation as a waste of time and energy and a source of anxiety. e questionnaire's structural model was evaluated in studying di erent di cult situations of 687 adults. e model ts well: RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.900, χ 2 = 3,068.835, df = 1,171.
Ways of coping were assessed with the Russian version of the "Ways of Coping Checklist" (revised). e WCC consists of 66 items that the study participants evaluate on a 4-point ordinal response scale including 0 ("not used"), 1 ("used somewhat"), 2 ("used quite a bit"), and 3 ("used a great deal"). e questionnaire was adapted for studies of Russian-language samples (N = 727) in order to study coping with a situation that the respondent considers to be di cult and urgent. e questionnaire structure was developed on the basis of material concerning various di culties, using exploratory and con rmatory factor analysis as well as expert evaluations. We selected nine factors that were used in the original versions of the Checklist (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985;Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986), but were not identical to the original versions in terms of the scales. ese factors are as follows: 1) planful problem-solving, deliberate problem-focused e orts to alter the situation, coupled with an analytic approach to solving the problem; 2) seeking social support; 3) positive reappraisal, e orts to create positive meaning by focusing on personal growth; 4) confrontive coping; 5) self-controlling; 6) self-blame, acknowledging one's own role in the problem with a concomitant theme of reproach and trying to put things right; 7) wishful thinking (fantasizing) and hope for a miracle; 8) distancing; 9) escape-avoidance. e factor model of the Russian-language version of the WCC has the following estimates: RMSEA = 0.047; CFI = 0.89; χ 2 = 2,634; df = 1, 011 (Bityutskaya, 2014). In this study we used the results of scales 1 (Cronbach's α = 0.712 in our sample), 3 (α = 0.817), 6 (α = 0.521), and 7 (α = 0.736).
We employed the following strategies to rule out common method bias (Jordan & Troth, 2019): the participants analyzed a di cult situation that they had actually experienced subjectively, which minimizes retrospective distortions and makes it possible to obtain data on the subjective situation. Some of the scales involve elements with reverse scaling. Finally, we motivated the respondents to give honest answers by promising (and keeping the promise) to give feedback in the form of an individual pro le of appraisal and coping with the di cult life situation.

Statistical Analysis
e path models were assessed in an Mplus package, version 8.3. e analysis used the method of maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors, calculated by using a sandwich estimator (estimator MLR in Mplus). To assess the distribution of the variables included in the model, a descriptive statistic was calculated and the normality of the distribution was assessed by the Shapiro-Wilk test.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis
e descriptive statistics of the scales and results of testing of their normality are presented in Table 1. It will be seen from the table that all the variables have a distribution di erent from the normal, which is due to a pronounced skewness. Because of this, the use of a robust estimates in con rmatory factor analysis is adequate. e Pearson correlations between the variables are presented in Table 2.  Analysis in most cases revealed high correlations between the variables. is indicates that the constructs included in the analysis are interconnected; however, the structure of pair correlations is di cult to describe through simple analysis. We will therefore describe in more detail the path model, based on theoretical suppositions concerning the mechanisms of the impact of subjective appraisal indicators on orientations in di cult situations, which in turn in uence the dominance of certain ways of coping.
Path Analysis e rst path model included three indicators of the subjective appraisal scale as independent variables: uncontrollability, unclearness, and negative emotions, as well as two orientations in di cult situations: drive and rejection. e dependent variables were ways of coping: planful problem-solving, positive reappraisal, wishful thinking, and self-blame.
Planful problem-solving and positive reappraisal, according to the model, are impacted by negative emotions and drive; and wishful thinking and self-blame by uncontrollability, unclearness, negative emotions, and rejection. A correlation is allowed between errors of pairs of dependent variables: planful problem-solving-positive reappraisal and wishful thinking-self-blame. e t indices of the model turned out to be fairly good: χ 2 (12) = 74.882, SRMR = 0.061, RMSEA = 0.091 (with 95% con dence interval [0.072; 0.111]), CFI = 0.930, TLI = 0.848. Some estimates, though, turned out to be close to zero. e standardized coe cients are shown in Figure 1; the full table of coe cients with condence intervals is in Appendix A (Table A1). e results reveal low estimates of the impact of negative emotions on planful problem-solving and positive reappraisal, and of unclearness on wishful thinking and self-blame.
Proceeding from the results obtained, and from a theoretical analysis of the relationship between the variables included in the analysis, an alternative (second) model was built, in which some direct links between independent and dependent variables were replaced or complemented by mediated ones. is applies to links between a subjective appraisal and the "ways of coping" indicators. We assumed that some of these links may be mediated by orientations in di cult situations. at is, a subjective appraisal does not merely a ect the prevalence of this or that strategy directly, but also (and in some cases only) the orientation in a di cult situation, which in turn may prompt a particular way of coping. e second path model included uncontrollability, unclearness, and negative emotions as primary independent variables. All these variables, according to the second model, 1) may in uence the rejection orientation; 2) uncontrollability and negative emotions in uence the drive orientation; and 3) uncontrollability directly impacts wishful thinking and self-blame, and negative emotions impact self-blame.
In turn, two orientations in di cult situations impact ways of coping in the following manner: drive has a positive impact on planful problem-solving and positive reappraisal, and rejection has a meaningful positive impact on planful problem-solving, wishful thinking, and self-blame. e model also includes correlations among all three subjective appraisal scales, between drive and rejection, and also between residuals of the two pairs of independent variables: planful problem-solving-positive reappraisal, and wishful thinking-selfblame.
e t indices of the second model proved to be better than those of the rst: χ 2 (17) = 79.025, SRMR = 0.051, RMSEA = 0.076 (with 95% con dence interval [0.059; 0.093]), CFI = 0.956, TLI = 0.915. Because the two models considered above di er in structure and are not nested, a direct comparison is impossible, but the t indices show that the second model agrees with the data better than the rst. e standardized coe cients are shown in Figure 2, and the full table of coe cients with condence intervals is in Appendix 1 (Table A2).
e results of analysis show a signi cant negative in uence of uncontrollability on drive and a positive in uence on rejection. Similarly, uncontrollability has a signi cant positive in uence on wishful thinking and self-blame. Unclearness has a positive in uence on rejection, and negative emotions have a positive in uence on rejection and a weaker, but still signi cant negative in uence on drive. Furthermore, drive exerts a positive in uence on planful problem-solving and positive reappraisal, and rejection has a signi cant positive in uence on wishful thinking and self-blame.
Moreover, according to the model, all three subjective appraisal indicators signi cantly correlate with one another. Likewise, the pairs of coping methods-planful problem-solving-positive reappraisal, and wishful thinking-self-blame-have signicant positive correlations. Finally, a negative correlation has been obtained between the drive and rejection orientations included in the model.

Discussion
Previous studies of coping predictors mainly proceeded from the transactional theory of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In contrast, this study uses an approach in which coping predictors are components of the psychological (perceived) situation. We have considered coping as a process that permits one to achieve a difcult life goal. e participant does not only appraise the di cult task, but is a subject who vigorously interacts with the situation through meaning-making (Leontiev, 1975;Sokolova, 2021). We were verifying a hypothesis on the combined in uence on coping strategies of appraisals and orientations in di cult situations. We did not check whether the person felt stress in a life situation, but the instruction asked the respondents to describe a real life task that needed to be solved and then to analyze their experiences, emotions, appraisals, and predictions. We reconstructed the perceived (psychological) situation on that basis.
is study a ords a description of perceived situation characteristics as predictors of coping strategies. We distinguish between coping strategies themselves and predictors of coping: cognitive appraisals of a situation, orientations as a complex of perceptual characteristics. In this context, the idea that approach-avoidance is cognitive activity is more suitable for us. Orientation in a di cult situation is largely related to the orientation of attention (Roth & Cohen, 1986;Skinner et al., 2003).
An evaluation of the two models has proved that it is possible to describe the range of predictors of coping methods through a simple model containing only the direct e ects of indicators of subjective appraisal and orientations in di cult situations. Some direct e ects, however, turned out to be insigni cant. e second model includes not only direct but also mediated links between independent and dependent variables. For instance, subjective appraisal indicators have an impact on orientations in di cult situations, which in turn a ect the methods of coping. is model has demonstrated better data t, showing that the structure of coping strategy predictors can be more complex than the direct in uence of subjective appraisals and orientations on one way of coping or another. us, for example, in the rst model, direct correlations between negative emotions and planful problemsolving turned out to be insigni cant. But according to the second model, negative emotions may have a signi cant (negative) impact on drive, which in turn significantly in uences planful problem-solving. In other words, the less intense are the negative emotions, the more manifest is drive, which makes planful problem-solving more likely. is indicates that direct and mediated in uences may di er not only in intensity, but also in the direction (positive or negative) of impact.
us, the mediated in uence model allows a systematic description of one of the orientations of being attracted to di culties that make people feel at their most active, focused on attaining the goal and experiencing feelings of pleasure and anticipation of success (drive). is is congruent with the de nition of a challenge from the transactional theory of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). However, there are di erences: "drive" is not con ned to an evaluation, but is an entire "pattern" which includes a sense that a situation is manageable; positive emotions (interest, curiosity, and inspiration); positive predictions concerning the development of events; and increased complexity of the task. Such people feel bored when confronted with tasks of a low degree of di culty. is description is similar to the characteristic of intrinsically motivated, or autotelic, activity: "activity rewarding in and of itself…, quite apart from its end product or any extrinsic good that might result from the activity" (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). It is also possible to compare drive orientation with "oversituational activity, " which is characterized by the growth and development of human capabilities (Petrovsky, 2010).
We have demonstrated the important role of subjective control and lowering of negative emotions for experiencing drive. Drive itself is a predictor of the actualization of planful coping and a positive reappraisal of the situation. While the majority of modern approaches see coping strategies as a predictor of psychological well-being, we have described the experience of drive, which implies a sense of the fullness of living not as a result of, but in the process of, coping with a di cult situation. Herein lies the originality of the proposed model.
Proceeding from the idea that goal attainment is connected with resistance to distractive stimuli (Brandstädter & Rothermund, 2002;Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006), we have introduced the factor of wishful thinking (or fantasizing), which is connected with self-blame. Our results show that these coping strategies are actualized when a di cult situation is perceived as a waste of time and e ort, with an anxious focus on negative predictions of how the situation will develop (rejection). e most powerful predictor of rejection is negative emotions generated by attaining a di cult goal, as well as the less strong but still signi cant predictors of uncontrollability and unclear-ness of a situation (the lack of a clear vision or understanding of how to act in order to achieve the desired result).
Our results are comparable to the theoretical conceptions and empirical evidence on perceived control, which in uences how well people act and plan, or remain passive and avoidant (Skinner, 1995). Our study of subjective appraisals of life situations corroborates the results of studies of control as power. Power is associated with the clarity of focusing on the goal, and also encourages work on the achievement of goals (Guinote, 2017;Scherer & Moors, 2019).
According to our data, subjective control is not only a predictor of orientations, but also directly in uences the actualization of wishful thinking and self-blame. Interestingly, with increasing subjective control, self-blame increases and avoidance decreases.
e connections revealed in our study correspond to the conceptual model of orientations in di cult situations and demonstrates their mediatory role.

Conclusion
e purpose of this study was to develop and test two structural models in which subjective appraisals and orientations in di cult situations were considered as predictors of coping strategies (planful problem-solving, positive reappraisal, wishful thinking, and self-blame). e rst model assumes a direct in uence of coping predictors (subjective appraisals: uncontrollability, unclearness, negative emotions; and orientations: drive and rejection). In the second model, orientations in di cult situations are constructs mediating the connection between subjective appraisals and coping strategies. Comparison of the two models shows that the more complex second model ts better with the data than the rst model. e proposed models describe two opposite strategies. e rst strategy implies the achievement of a di cult goal with positive emotions, a feeling of satisfaction with life in the process of overcoming di culties (drive). e second is associated with an orientation toward avoiding di culties, minimizing the waste of e ort and resources (rejection).
e results can be interpreted as corroboration of the idea of interaction between the subject and the situation. e process of such interaction involves appraisal of di culty, which in uences orientation in di cult situations. In turn, orientations are predictors of coping strategies. e characteristics of the psychological situation determine coping, which may be oriented either toward approach to or avoidance of the goal.

Limitations
e study has some limitations. First, this is a cross-sectional survey. We plan to further test the identi ed relationships using an experimental design.
Second, we considered only one type of situation-"tasks"-involving the achievement of a di cult goal, but we were presented with various situations in different spheres of life (material, professional challenges, etc.). Subsequently, it would be interesting to answer the question: Is coping di erent for di erent types of situ-ation (situations)? Or are the connections we have found su ciently universal that they manifest themselves in situations or "tasks" belonging to di erent domains of life?
ird, we looked at two aspects of achieving a di cult goal, related to approaching and avoiding. Important aspects have been le out of attention: mechanisms that facilitate the adjustment of goals and the concomitant ability to abandon an ine ective coping strategy (Kato, 2012). We believe that in considering coping as a dynamic process, these are stages of the process of appraisal and coping that could be most e ectively studied in research designed to model the process of di cult goal attainment and to combine observation and experiment.

Ethical Statement
All subjects were over 18 years old and gave their informed consent for participation in the study. e study received ethical approval from the Ethical Committee of the Department of General Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Lomonosov Moscow State University (Moscow, Russia), meeting No. 3, held Oct. 26, 2016.

Author Contributions
Ekaterina Bityutskaya developed the concept of the study, performed the theoretical analysis, and collected the data. Aleksei Korneev performed statistical analysis and computations, and described the results. e two authors discussed the results of the study and prepared the text.

Con icts of Interest
e authors declare no con icts of interest.